Who is contributer

The young Narendranath Dutta (later Swami Vivekananda) A man comes; you know he is very learned, his language is beautiful, and he speaks to you by the hour; but he does not make any impression. Another man comes, and he speaks a few words, not well arranged, ungrammatical perhaps; all the same, he makes an immense impression. Many of you have seen that. So it is evident that words alone cannot always produce an impression. Words, even thoughts contribute only one-third of the influence in making an impression, the man, twothirds.What you call the personal magnetism of the man † that is what goes out and impresses you. Life Snapshot 2 Meeting his Guru, Sri Ramakrishna Dakshineshwar Temple, Kolkata In his college years, Narendra went about asking many religious leaders of the time whether they had a direct experience of God, but could not get answers which satisfied him. His quest brought him finally to Sri Ramakrishna. Thus began a guru-disciple relationship which is quite uniq ue in the history of spiritual masters. 2 OF 27 Ancestral home of Swami Vivekananda in North Kolkata Narendranath, was known for his keen intellect and prodiguous memory.He acquired a thorough grasp of various subjects during his school and college years, especially Western logic, philosophy and history. He questioned the validity of superstitious customs and discrimination based on caste and refused to accept anything without rational proof and pragmatic test. In our families there are the heads; some of them are successful, others are not. Why? We complain of others in our failures. The moment I am unsuccessful, I say, so-and-so is the cause of the failure. In failure, one does not like to confess one's own faults and weaknesses.

The Hunger Project In Ghana Environmental Sciences Essay

Ghana is rich in natural resources and has one of the strongest emerging economic systems in Africa. Ghana is quickly urbanizing. Despite this, most of Ghana ‘s hapless unrecorded in rural countries without basic services such as wellness attention and clean H2O, entree to recognition loan installations, basic instruction. Small-scale husbandmans, who are affected most by rural poorness in Ghana, depended on out-of-date agriculture tools and deficiency entree to improved seeds and fertilisers to increase harvest outputs. Like Caritas in Sierra Leone, The Hunger Project ( THP ) , was founded in 1977, in the aftermath of the lifting argument on universe hungriness triggered by the first Rome World Food Conference. Compared with Sierra Leone, NGOs presence in the state was as a consequence of the merely concluded war, Ghana on the other manus has non experience war but yet its citizens live below the poorness line. It should be noted that, the battle against poorness or the schemes implemented by NGOs to contend poorness and their targeted donees varies from NGOs to NGOs, part to part. The Hunger Project has been working in Ghana since 1995 and is authorising 250,000 spouses in 40 epicentre communities to stop their ain hungriness and poorness. Through its incorporate attack to rural development, the Epicenter Strategy, The Hunger Project is working with spouses to successfully entree the basic services needed to accomplish the Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) and lead lives of autonomy. 3.5.1- GENERAL ACTIVITIES OF THP Success physiques on success is the chief focal point of THP in Africa is mobilising people at the grassroots degree to be autonomy is a general concern of the THP and their chief mark groups are adult females and youth the marginalized in today ‘s society. Hunger Project strategies seek to construct people ‘s capacities, leading and assurance. They developing of adult females and work forces, fiting them with the accomplishments, methods and cognition needed to take autonomous actions to better their lives and conditions in their communities have been the undertaking of THP for a decennary period now. The Vision, Commitment and Action Workshop ( VCAW ) are the first phase set for rural communities to be autonomous. This has produced good figure donees in THP operational zones. The preparation of community or local energizers and their mobilisation procedure have become the flicker stopper for local action. As people take more significant action, THP provides accomplishments preparations in literacy, numeracy, nutritionA and local Torahs. The organize people into self-help groups to derive a stronger voice are behind their success narratives.Analysis OF NGOs ROLE AND APPROACH TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION4.0.3- NGOs ROLES: HUMANITARIAN ASSISTANCE/ RELIEF SERVICE AN APPROACH TO POVERTY ALLEVIATIONIn this stage, the function played by NGOs during exigencies, like war, and some natural catastrophes, will be assessed and analyzed. Relief service is one of NGOs speedy intercession countries, in the universe. However, one should hold the realisation that human-centered aid, is offer during exigencies, and that it is short live. These aid include: the proviso of Non-food points, like apparels, hard-on of cantonments as shelter for displaced or returnees, vulnerable, every bit good as victims, free medical installations, proviso of free instruction and skill preparation, proviso of nutrient, either all ready procedure, or through the battle of the donees in some agricultural activities, and nutrient points, formed the alleviation service programme. In position of the definition of human-centered aid or alleviation services, below is an analysis, of the alleviation programme implemented by two NGOs in Sub-Saharan Africa. Three major sectors which alleviation services ever focuses on are to be discussed below and these include: Agriculture, Health and Education. 4.2.1 AGRICULTURAL SECTOR ( Case surveies THP and Caritas The study highlights the agricultural plan, implemented by Caritas Sierra Leone, in Sierra Leone in the Eastern Region in three Districts. In the 2003-2004 Cropping Season supported by Caritas Germany Donor, The Caritas Germany plan supported 1110 farm households through Caritas Sierra Leone in the Kenema District. So far four major activities have been undertaken to implement agribusiness programme. These are: Base line Survey Input Distribution Monitoring Field Extension The program of activities was prepared by the Field Supervisor and the Agricultural supervisor and presented to the Administrative Officer for blessing. The base line study was done by the Field Extension Workers ( FEW ) . Besides, the bringing of Extension Service ( which is ongoing ) is being undertaken by the FEW. The Monitoring exercising is being undertaken by the targeted communities in January/February 2004. 4.2.2 BASELINE SURVEY The Baseline Survey/ Farms Registration were done in all the targeted communities in January/ February2004. The husbandmans targeted were chiefly farm household caputs shacking in either relocated communities of IDP cantonments in the targeted chiefdoms. Certain standards were use 500 to select/register the husbandmans including the followers: That merely the Farm Family Head is listed down That precedence is given to the most vulnerable, such as those who are husbandmans but have no entree to basic production inputs such as seeds/planting stuffs and tools. That the Farm Family Head has a minimal household labour force to cultivate at least two estates of land. That the Farm Family Heads have entree to free piece of land to cultivate in the vicinity. Precedence was besides given to adult females and widow Headed Farm Families. The donees in Nongowa and Dama Chiefdom in the Kenema District were registered and served in the internally displaced locations i.e. in relocated village/town communities. A fixed Farm Family instance burden of 200 was allocated for all relocated communities and 100 farm household from each cantonment in every mark Chiefdom. However, the figure of communities per Chiefdom was hot fixed. Few communities were selected from Chiefdoms with big towns/villages e.g. Nongowa, and more from little Chiefdoms with smaller towns/ small towns e.g. Dodo.5.2.3 INPUT DISTRIBUTIONTHE Caritas programme provided assorted types of Agriculture inputs for the 1100 targeted farm households. These were seed rice, tools and seting stuffs ( sweet murphy vine and cassava film editings ) The day of the month of the input distribution started in the 13th June 2001 and ended on the 29th July 2001.an analysis of the input distribution is given in the tabular array below.4.2.4 Monitoring AND ExtensionThe monitoring exercising started since 30th July2001. The targeted communities ( including displaced cantonments ) the Nongowa, Dodo and Small Bo Chiefdoms are being visited. The motivation fundamentally is to happen out How far the FEW were able to successfully present the inputs to the donees. The Extent of extended services being delivered to the husbandmans. How far the donees have been able to properly grip and use the inputs received services render them by FEW. Reasonable histories can now be given to the undermentioned activities. Timely conductivity of Base line study. Successful bringing and distribution of all inputs provided for the donees. The husbandman s accepted and described the inputs as good. Cultivation of the seeds and seting stuffs provided for the husbandmans now in advancement. Transplant of seeds rice had been completed in most of the farms. The cassava film editings and murphy vines had besides been planted. All three ( 3 ) harvests were shooting good.4.2.5 CROP PRODUCTIONThe harvests cultivated by the targeted donees included highland and IVS rice, maize, manioc, and miscellaneous veggies. Entire land area cultivated for each of the harvest by farm households and by all the donees combined is shown below: The undertaking end product was used in several ways by the husbandmans. The crop from the seed rice was used for place ingestion, refund of seed loans, proviso of seed stock for subsequent planting season and gross revenues. The harvest signifier manioc, maize, and veggies were used for gross revenues, place ingestion and seed seting stock. The sale of some of the crop allowed the husbandmans obtained money to run into other family demands to better on their societal economic position. The grain shops are soon being used for hive awaying agricultural inputs and seeds. In 2004/05, some constituent was formed under the agricultural sector. For this constituent, 25 Liberian refugees ‘ farm households were identified and registered. Shown in the tabular array below, the demographic profile of the donees ( household caputs ) .4.2.6 SEED LOAN RECOVERYFarmers were supplying with seed rice on the status that after harvest the same measure that was received will be paid. An estimation of 95 % of seed burden recovery was achieved. The seed tonss were collected in all communities covered. The loans collected were deposited into seed bank established in the several communities. These loans allow communities have stock of seeds from which seed loans could be obtained by interested community members for future planting season. See full detailed analysis on the seed loan below. THP, on its portion, has similar agribusiness programmes, organized for community engagement. Increasing Food Security Malawi is a state that is prone to natural catastrophes, enduring from both utmost drouths to heavy rain falls. As a consequence, the nutrient supply state of affairs in Malawi remains rickety. To this terminal, The Hunger Project-Ghana empowers and supports husbandmans with preparations and stuffs to increase and diversify their nutrient production. In these catastrophe prone countries, a cardinal component of the Epicenter Strategy is the community nutrient Bankss. The Hunger Project-Malawi has besides inaugurated a system of land irrigation to increase and diversity nutrient production. The Hunger Project-Ghana in 2005 sceptered and supported husbandmans with preparations and stuffs to increase and diversify their nutrient production. While Benin does non endure from major drouths or inundations, there is however a great deficit of nutrient. Food Bankss at the epicentre, small town and family degrees help communities remain nutrient secure in instance of a deficit. The Hunger Project-Ghana late launched a pilot undertaking, The Food Production Contest, which has successfully catalyzed spouses ‘ committedness to the terminal of hungriness in poorness by increasing stocks in community nutrient Bankss.4.2.7 EDUCATIONAL SECTOR( a ) -Skills Training This sub-project was initiated with the purpose of authorising Refugee Youths between 17-35 old ages to go an plus to their communities and doing pregnant parts to the development of their several communities whether they return. Trainees were identified among the Liberian Refugees population in coaction with the Liberian Executive and developing garb was rented at No. 18 Sesay Street, Sierra Leone, where the undermentioned accomplishments options were conducted: Tailoring, Gara Tie Dyeing, Soap production, Hair Dressing, Carpentry and Small Engine care. Quality preparation stuffs were produced and made available to the Centre for the different accomplishments through the Liberian Executive. Educational Officer In coaction with the Liberian Executives, Caritas Sierra Leone pointed Educational Officer registered 820 Liberian Refugee pupils for support in 2004/05 academic twelvemonth. 481 of these were supported in the primary schools out of which 245 were male childs and 236 were misss. 339 secondary school pupils were supported out of which 231 were male childs and 108 misss. As seen in the tabular array, above 63 % of the primary school pupils supported are between the ages 6-11yrs while 37 % are above 12 old ages. Of the 302 pupils under 12 old ages, 153 ( 51 % ) are boys and 149 ( 49 % ) are girls. Of the 179 pupils over 11 old ages, 90 ( 50 % ) are boys and 89 ( 50 % ) are misss. An estimation of 58 % of the secondary school pupils supported is between the ages 12-17 old ages and 42 % are above 17 old ages. Below is the distribution of the pupils harmonizing to age and class: Among the 339 refugee pupils supported and between 12-17 old ages, 126 ( 63 % ) are boys and 40 ( 28 % ) are misss. A sum of 110 refugee ( grownups ) registered for the Adult Literacy Program ( 52 males and 58 females ) and were all distributed to the assorted degree of the plan harmonizing to their output/progress. Out of this sum ( 110 ) , 70 ( 64 % ) are between 15-24 old ages and 40 ( 36 % ) are 25+ old ages. The library continued to supply utile services to refugee school kids, largely those in secondary who could non buy the prescribed reading stuffs in their schools. A sum of 1,829 pupils visited the library during the twelvemonth. Similarly, THP – Ghana has of all time since embarked on Promoting Education in Ghana ‘s eastern part. This portion of the state history for the highest degree of illiteracy. Adult and child literacy plans conducted in local and national linguistic communications are being carried out in more than 30 literacy centres in The Hunger Project-Ghana ‘s eastern part plan countries. The local authorities continues to back up The Hunger Project-Ghana with instructors and stuffs. In an attempt to guarantee that girl kids stay in school, The Hunger Project-Ghana implemented a Mother ‘s Club which sensitizes adult females to the benefits of directing misss to school. The plan has seen noteworthy consequences such as a decrease in local kid trafficking every bit good as an addition in literacy rates. 4.2.8 HEALTH SECTOR PRIMARY HEALTH CARE SERVICES- HIV/AIDS PREVENTION 2002-2008 The Caritas Sierra Leone Health undertook the Primary Health Care programme, uses the undermentioned attacks in the HIV/AIDS bar Education Strategy: Sponsoring immature instrumentalists to compose vocals turn toing HIV/AIDS prevention/ attention and stigma ; Working through adult females ‘s groups such as Hunbgtateh Women ‘s Association in Kenema Town which conduct preparation in assorted accomplishment aiming dropouts, commercial sex workers, miss female parent, and female supported family ; Preventing HIV/AIDS bar through Audio-Visual shows, talk and function drama to establishments TBA ‘s, female parents an clinics yearss, young persons and grownup in the communities etc ; and Using the platform of World Aids Day for HIV/AIDS sensitisation activities. 4.2.9 CLINIC ACTIVITIES A entire figure of 172,145 Liberian refugees patient received intervention between March 2001 and May 2003 at Caritas supported clinics in the Kenema District. The reported clinical mortality rate was 0.14 % that is, 155 under five and 123 grownups. Malaria leads with 30 % of Acute Respiratory Infection ( ARI ) and pneumonia, 10 % of adult females infestation, 80 % skin infection, 17 % diarrhoae and dysentery, 6 % anaemia, and 5 % of Sexually Transmitted Infection ( STI ) . Maternal and Child Health Aids assigned by the Ministry of Health and Sanitation to the 30 clinics constructed and supported by Caritas in the Kenema District assisted in 2,683 bringings 22 were maternal deceases and five 100s and 20 unnatural bringing were reported from the clinics. The Traditional Birth Attendants ( TBAs ) reported 2,476 normal were trained in the Kenema District and given obstetrics supplied by UNICEF. In Ghana eastern part, similar wellness plants are done by THP. THP in Ghana, through the creative activity of the Epicenters in the part, these wellness centres provide primary wellness attention and immunisations. They besides teach work forces and adult females how to better their wellness and hygiene. The Hunger Project-Ghana in 2003 has pioneered a household Planning and Nutritional Monitoring Community Dialogue Project in an attempt to continue the wellness of both adult females and kids in the community. When births are spread out, kids are constantly healthier and adult females have more clip and energy to put in their income-generating activities. In Ghana eastern part, where there is a high prevalence of HIV/AIDS and malaria, and in 2004, 3,000 anti-malaria bed cyberspaces were distributed among 3,000 community people. The Hunger Project-Ghana, conducts preparation of traditional birth attenders, as in the instance of Caritas Sierra Leone, mobilizes energizers to supply bed-nets and implements HIV/AIDS voluntary guidance and proving plans in epicentre communities. More than 215,000 people have participated in THP-Ghana ‘s HIV/AIDS and Gender Inequality Workshop.[ 1 ] In the battle against malaria, Hunger Project energizers are enrolled as community drug distributers who are trained by the authorities and given malaria drugs to administer. Detailed records are kept of which spouses have received cyberspaces and accessed malaria intervention drugs. WATER AND SANITATION PROJECT Thirty new Wellss were constructed at assorted clinics location in the Kenema District. A sum of 26 old Wellss were rehabilitated profiting an norm of three 100 people per good. In add-on, four new gravitation H2O systems were complemented two at the Dodo and Nongowa Chiefdoms in the Kenema District. As mentioned in above, NGOs functions are diverse in nature. In this subdivision of the work, the issue of microfinance is capable of treatment every bit THP as in the instance of Caritas will be use as a instance survey to show the functions of NGOs as related to microfinance.Part TWO4.3.0. NGOs Function: MICROFINANCE AN APPROACH TO POVERTY ALLEVIATIONIs it clear that rendering human-centered aid to the hapless is a good thing, but non warrant, as these alleviation services are offer merely during exigency period, for illustration if there is war, drouth, civil agitation, and when natural catastrophe occurred in a given vicinity. It has its ain advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, if NGOs purpose is to relieve poorness in Sub-Saharan Africa, they should airt their development function particularly in states where no war has taken topographic point like Ghana. Redirecting their dockets can besides assist in refocusing people ‘s head from doing problems and do them concentra te. This of class, could merely be achieved if people particularly marginalized young persons and adult females, the voiceless are to the full engaged in plants that are profitable and could do them autonomy. â€Å" An idle encephalon they say is a Satan ‘s workshop † . As antecedently explained, in order to relieve poorness, The Hunger Project has used microfinance like many other NGOs, as an attack and mechanism to assist contend poorness in Ghana other sub- Saharan African states do besides hold microfinance operation. Microfinance plans have been embraced around the universe as an of import scheme for poorness relief. Surveies have demonstrated that the poorness relief impacts of microfinance services include making the hapless, raising their economic wellbeing every bit good as authorising them, particularly adult females ( Ashe, 2000 ; Todd, 2000 ; Fisher, 2002 ; Khandker, 2002 ; Robinson, 2002 ; Simanowitz, 2002 ; Snodgrass, 2002 ) . Over the last decennary the microfinance field has expanded well both in footings of figure of establishments and the size of establishments. Microfinance is an effectual tool that is been used by NGOs to cut down poorness in the rural hapless. Microfinance is the proviso of fiscal services to the hapless who do non hold entree to capital and fiscal services Kosiura, K 2001. A more precise definition describes microfinance as the proviso of appropriate fiscal services to important Numberss of low-income, economically active people with an terminal aim to relieve poorness ( Ledger wood, 1998 ) . Fiscal services can include one or any combination of the undermentioned: loaning, nest eggs, insurance, pension/retirement and payment services. Increasingly mature MFIs besides provide diverse products-housing loans ( chiefly betterments, fix and care ) , insurance ( both wellness and life insurance ) , and private pensions. Microfinance is besides often combined with the proviso of societal and concern development services, such as literacy preparation, instruction on wellness issues, direction or accounting preparation. The function of microfinance for development attempts in black Africa, peculiarly for poorness relief has been important. Supplying hapless people with entree to fiscal services are seen to cut down capital market deformations to except the hapless, cut down exposure by supplying the hapless with fiscal resources when needed, and chances for income-generating activities. In Sierra Leone, for case, the Agricultural Bank established by the authorities to be crediting husbandmans and pay in subsequent harvest home season was closed during the war and since after that the authorities has non being reestablished and husbandmans to day of the month are constrained with the issue of money Microfinance enables clients to protect, diversify and increase their income, every bit good as to roll up assets, cut downing their exposure to income and ingestion dazes ( Robison, 2002 ) . The solidarity group loaning methodological analysiss common in microfinance, aid increase the assurance of the hapless ( particularly adult females ) , authorising them to more efficaciously confront inequalities ; ( Ashe, 2000 ; Todd, 2000 ; Fisher, 2002, Khandker, 2002 ; Robinson, 2002 ; Simanowitz, 2002 ; Snodgrass, 2002 ) . The handiness of fiscal services has proven to be a critical factor in cut downing poorness and its effects, uncovering positive consequences on nutrition, instruction, wellness, gender equity, agribusiness and the environment ( Littlefield, 2003 ) . MFIs include all types of entities that provide microfinance services. MFIs scope from non-governmental organisations ( NGOs ) to regulated fiscal establishments such as non-bank fiscal establishments, commercial Bankss, recognition brotherhoods and province Bankss ( Christen & A ; Drake, 2001 ) . They are by and large guided and defined by two viing paradigms: fiscal self-sustainability and poorness relief.[ 2 ] The poorness relief attack ( besides referred to the welfare-statist attack ) claims that the overall ends of micro-finance should be poverty decrease and authorization. Such MFIs are rather expressed in their focal point on instantly bettering the well being of participants. Harmonizing to Woller ( 2000 ) , their nonsubjective tends to be self-employment of the poorer among the economically active hapless, particularly adult females, whose control of modest additions in income and nest eggs is assumed to authorise them to better the conditions of life for themselves and their kids. Within this paradigm, there are a group of feminist authorization writers that emphasize adult females ‘s economic, societal and political authorization. While microfinance is seen by these writers as an of import manner to react to the immediate practical demands of hapless informal sector adult females workers, it is seen as lone portion of a scheme for wider societal and political authorization o f adult females which, in bend, is seen as indispensable to sustained additions in income ( Mayoux, 1998 ) . In the point of view of THP, edifice and strengthening of the adult females ‘s administration and other marginalized people who formed Self-Help Groups are the footing of microfinance development. Through these community groups, the hapless cultivates their spirit of common cooperation and construct corporate actions. In relation to this attack, community facilitators and energizers as in the instance of THP, encourage people to set up themselves. THP put the constitution of CGs as a first and chief measure in the attempts to assist the hapless to be autonomous and battle against poorness. When these CGs are established, THP provides human resource preparation for the members of the group particularly on how to make nest eggs and recognition activities. It is a measure to be passed by all the members before they learn how to make concern activities. In other words, THP develops nest eggs and recognition activity as a footing for heightening micro concern, and to make micro concern. To accomplish this end, THP has established epicentres to ease their micro finance programme. In analysis, THP ‘s microfinance programme in Ghana eastern part is analyzed as follow between the old ages 2000-2006. Within 2000-2002, The Hunger Project has distributed USD $ 1,279,841 in loans to a sum of 3,917 spouses in their epicentre communities. The current cumulative refund rate bases at 87.23 per centum. In 2003-2004, The Hunger Project has distributed US $ 405,785 in microloans to 14,785 spouses, with an mean loan size of $ 68. There are three government-recognized rural Bankss that are runing in three autonomous epicentre communities. Through its microfinance plan, in 2005, The Hunger Project has distributed US $ 688,134 in microloans to 7,695 spouses.[ 3 ] The twelvemonth 2006, was THP ‘s immense fiscal expense. The Hunger Project has distributed USD $ 1,279,841 in loans to a sum of 3,917 spouses in their epicentre communities. The current cumulative refund rate bases at 87.23 per centum. Form the above, it is a clear grounds demoing how THP ‘s microfinance programme is an effectual agencies of relieving poorness, as there micro finance has capacitated the local communities to transport out their agriculture activities and make some nest eggs which subsequently would be of usage for small-scale concerns. The intent of microfinance is to authorise the marginalized in community, to do small nest eggs and besides to utilize the money given by givers to set about some little graduated table concern, and for those who are husbandmans to utilize in purchasing fertilisers, seeds, and in future be self-reliance. As human-centered services seem to be a short term end, and caters for a really few, microfinance on the other manus, screens broad scope of donees, as the money given are directed to groups and administrations, instead than single households, profiting at the disbursal of others. In modern-day times today, human-centered aid, and microfinance, ne'er seems to be plenty, as they people involved in the procedure, and donees are clump of nonreaders, and they few elect benefit most at the cost of others. The issue of Microfinance has been questioned ; this is because, microfinance, trades with banking and nest eggs procedure, therefore, if people ca n't read nor compose, the procedure can easy be fraud, as issues associating to certification is entirely in the custodies of the elite. Accountability and lucidity has ever been the job with money. African leaders are notably known for corruptness, graft and many other illegal activities, so whenever one talk of money, uncertainties are ever created in the heads of people. In a command to turn to this unfavorable judgment, NGOs have besides embark on another development function which is Capacity Building. The inquiry frequently asked by funding givers, is the capacity, and degrees of the alteration agents ( NGOs ) . Many argue that NGOs are â€Å" rawness, incompetent and incapable of covering with such proficient countries, and besides lack the expertness to manage pecuniary issues † ( Henrietta, 2007 ) . If this is no bias, so NGOs should seek so difficult to better on their proficient know-how if their ends are to be achieved. To turn to this issue of capableness, most NGOs have redirected their development schemes from alleviation services and microfinance to capacity-building and empowerment programmes. Many opined that if more pririority is put on this facet of NGOs functions, so it will still the frights of givers. In the short coming chapter, the issue of capacity- edifice and authorization would be another country of analysis to see it outcome and effectiveness in our society. 4.3.1 NGOs Functions: CAPACITY BUILDING AN APPROACH TO POVERTY ALLEVIATION Capacity -Building, as a term has late dominated NGOs vocabulary. â€Å" Teach me how to angle, instead than, given me fish every twenty-four hours † . This proverb can outdo depict what capacity edifice is all approximately. In modern-day times, divergent positions are held about the construct. Scholars are working round the clock to convey up a simple and precise definition, but till so no 1 definition is given. Some NGOs work to construct up local administrations, so that they can make more to back up local people themselves. This procedure is known as ‘capacity edifice ‘ . For case, it might include assisting little community groups come together and supply support to their members, or assisting national NGOs or authorities establishments to work better and turn. If the procedure works good, capacity edifice can assist local administrations deliver relevant services on a sustainable footing to local people ( including lobbying and helping authorization ) . Capacity Building is a procedure through which â€Å" NGOs strengthen the local communities, civil society administrations, authorities establishments, and other private establishments † . Although Lewis ( 2001, p. 69 ) argues that the NGO is an implementer and â€Å" can be engaged in supplying services to its clients through its ain programmes, † we argue, on the contrary, that NGOs, should non implement its ain plans, but instead should assist communities achieve their ain sustainable plans economic, political and societal countries. As Fowler ( 1997, p. 13 ) underscores, â€Å" facilitation is a critical facet of engagement procedure † that Southern NGOs need to larn and pattern. In a more definite term, Capacity-building is an â€Å" enterprise that focuses on the proviso of proficient support, for both NGOs for those situated in the LDCs, to assist their mark donees, and for those established in developed universe, know as Northern NGOs ( NNGOs ) , therefore enabling them to transport out their preferable ends of project-related services and protagonism † . Smillie ( 1999, p. 75 ) provides a substantial illustration. The Canadian Partnership Branch â€Å" has articulated several aims. Among them is capacity edifice in developing states: to beef up the capacity of southern organisations and establishments to do a important and sustainable development impact among the deprived communities through forming preparation programmes † ( see besides Duhu 2005, p. 44 ; Tapeline 2000, p. 40 ) . Capacity Building is much more than preparation and includes the followers Human resource development, the procedure of fiting persons with the apprehension, accomplishments and entree to information, cognition and preparation that enables them to execute efficaciously. Organizational development, the amplification of direction constructions, procedures and processs, non merely within organisations but besides the direction of relationships between the different organisations and sectors ( public, private and community ) . Institutional and legal model development, doing legal and regulative alterations to enable organisations, establishments and bureaus at all degrees, and at all sectors to heighten their capacities. Local authorities, communities and NGOs are the chief clients, but cardinal authorities and the private commercial sector besides need support. Community groups, frequently with strong NGO support, need to better their capacity to be after, form and pull off their vicinities. Departments of local authorities play an progressively of import function in enabling community groups to heighten their capacities and effectivity. There are really direct deductions for agricultural instruction in the country of human resource capacity edifice since by definition the term ( and the procedure ) has instruction, both formal and non-formal, at its nucleus. In its broadest reading, capacity edifice encompasses human resource development ( HRD ) as an indispensable portion of development. It is based on the construct that instruction and preparation prevarication at the bosom of development attempts and that without HRD most development intercessions will be uneffective. It focuses on a series of actions directed at assisting participants in the development procedure to increase their cognition, accomplishments and apprehensions and to develop the attitudes needed to convey about the coveted developmental alteration. Another indispensable mechanism for capacity edifice is partnership development. Partnerships give a local NGO entree to: cognition and accomplishments ; advanced and proved methodological analysiss ; networking and funding chances ; replicable theoretical accounts for turn toing community demands and managing resources ; options for organisational direction and administration ; and schemes for protagonism, authorities dealingss and public outreach. The Hunger Project -Ghana is one clear illustration of NGOs partnership. The Hunger Project-Uganda has been successful at making long-run partnerships with a figure of organisations. A partnership with Catholic Relief Services ( CRS ) in Kiboga Epicenter, in 2002, builds the capacity of rural spouses to fix and react to a figure of diseases impacting their chief harvest: manioc. Diseases have devastated crops and go on to endanger the nutrient security and incomes of cassava-dependent households. This four-year partnership with CRS will assist spouses to protect their crops and increase their outputs and family incomes. The Hunger Project-Ghana partnered with AFFORDS in Uganda and received 3,000 treated anti-malarial bed cyberspaces for spouses in Mpigi Epicenter. In the battle against malaria, Hunger Project energizers are enrolled as community drug distributers who are trained by the authorities and given malaria drugs to administer. By the terminal of 2002-2007 over 7,000 people received free malaria intervention in Ghana eastern part. The ideal of human development and partnership are non the lone ground for NGOs capacity edifice, but instead support has its ain instance to reason. The former can be carried out successfully, but in concurrence with support which is even the more ground for partnership. When people partnered, is either for fiscal, moral, proficient and other supports. Through NGOs local partnership, environmental sustainability could be achieved. Environmental sustainability is a basis of plan execution in The Hunger Project-Ghana epicentre communities. Many Hunger Project spouses in Ghana usage energy ranges, which cut down firewood ingestion by an norm of 60 per centum. Womans have replaced their cookery fire or three-stone ranges with more efficient clay ranges which burn less wood. In this manner, adult females do non hold to pass as much clip roll uping firewood. Efficient ranges mean less work for adult females. Capacity edifice, as a construct entails tonss of strengths, Northern NGOs may utilize their resources to beef up the capacity of Southern NGOs on many foreparts, as Duhu ( 2005, p.44 ) notes: â€Å" plan support, institutional support, proficient support, partnerships and alliances. † Skills in the country of strategic planning, and human development, for illustration, can non be overemphasized. Sadly, Lewis ( 2001, p. 158 ) argues that â€Å" in many aid-dependent contexts it is common for partnerships affecting NGOs to hold inactive character, frequently because the thought of partnership is forced in some manner. † â€Å" Capacity edifice is an terminal to itself, instead than a agencies to any other terminal † , in this context justifies that any support given to 3rd universe NGOs by northern NGOs, is a right to itself. Northern NGOs like United Nations, World Health Organisation, and any other UN related Agencies, given developing programmes like, study aut horship, accounting ; monitoring and rating and undertaking proposal/design and direction, to Sothern NGOs are illustrations of NGOs justifiable ends. However, it should be noted that effectual capacity edifice besides takes clip and depends on respectful duologue with the staff and stakeholders of the administration that is constructing itself up. From the above analyses, one could reason that NGOs are non merely ordinary societier members, but more positive histrions in the battle against poorness as demonstrated in the above analyses, and the accomplishment of the Millennium Development Goals by 2015 as prioritized by United Nations and the universe at big. The three countries of concern used as a focal point for poorness relief by NGOs, proved beyond uncertainties the effectivity and importance of NGOs in our society. Hence a research of such nature, is deserving educating.

What makes you beautiful

You're insecure Don't know what for You're turning heads when you walk through the door Don't need make up To cover up Being the way that you are is enoughEveryone else in the room can see it Everyone else but you[Chorus] Baby you light up my world like nobody else The way that you flip your hair gets me overwhelmed But when you smile at the ground it aint hard to tell You don't know Oh Oh You don't know you're beautifulIf only you saw what I can see You'll understand why I want you so desperately Right now I'm looking at you and I can't believe You don't know Oh oh You don't know you're beautiful Oh oh That what makes you beautifulSo c-come on You got it wrong To prove I'm right I put it in a song I don't know why You're being shy And turn away when I look into your eyesEveryone else in the room can see it Everyone else but you[Chorus] Baby you light up my world like nobody else The way that you flip your hair gets me overwhelmed But when you smile at the ground it aint hard to tell You don't know Oh oh You don't know you're beautifulIf only you saw what I can see You'll understand why I want you so desperately Right now I'm looking at you and I can't believe You don't know Oh oh You don't know you're beautiful Oh oh That's what makes you beautiful[Bridge] Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana Nana NanaBaby you light up my world like nobody else The way that you flip your hair gets me overwhelmed But when you smile at the ground it aint hard to tell You don't know Oh Oh You don't know you're beautiful[Chorus] Baby you light up my world like nobody else The way that you flip your hair gets me overwhelmed But when you smile at the ground it aint hard to tell You don't know Oh oh You don't know you're beautifulIf only you saw what I can see You'll understand why I want you so desperately Right now I'm looking at you and I can't believe You don't know Oh Oh You don't know you're beautiful Oh oh You don't know you're beautiful Oh oh That's what makes yo u beautifulI like this song because it makes a girl feel special.  It’s one of my favourite songs from One Direction. One of the relations in reality that I could relate to this song to is when girls say they are fat, ugly, not loved, or cared for. It’s basically having a low self-esteem, or feeling insecure. Everyone is beautiful. Maybe not a supermodel body, and a beautiful personality, but everyone has something that makes them, simply them. No matter what you look like, fat, skinny, short, big, small, it doesn’t matter. We all are different, in a good way. We have our own liking and disliking. We have different beliefs, and religious views.We also have different families, and lifestyle. And still, no matter what, we are equally beautiful. I don’t really have any other relations I could make from this song to my life. And the last thing I need to say before I leave is, everyone is beautiful, and don’t think otherwise!

Affirmative action plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Affirmative action plan - Assignment Example g that equal rights and treatment are present within the workplace1.The purpose of affirmative action plans is to ensure that there is equal opportunity for all people. However, this approach differs from a traditional equal opportunity approach, because equal opportunity attempts to eliminate discrimination when it occurs, but affirmative action plans are more active, and aim to prevent discrimination happening2. This is an important distinction and is critical in the way that organizations develop and enact affirmative action plans. Despite their prevalence throughout the United States, and the legislative support that is present for them, there is considerable controversy about the use of affirmative action plans. Opponents argue that they promote discrimination through the process of reverse discrimination, where people who are not part of a minority group have less opportunities and benefits than those who are in a minority. The purpose of this paper is to examine this history surrounding affirmative action plans, their use in present day organizations, the controversy about them and to consider what this is likely to mean for affirmative action plans in the future. People of racial or ethnic minority groups as well as women have often experienced legal or social exclusion in many areas. In the 1960s and 1970s, Hispanic Americans and African Americans were mostly segregated into low income jobs, leaving some categories of employment for white males only, including fire departments and police departments in many major cities. In contrast, roles that required hard manual labor tended to be almost exclusively occupied by people from ethnic minorities. Although there were significant improvements to civil rights, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964, the creation of equal opportunities for women and minority groups was often difficult. This was in part due to the difficulties in implementing the changes and the fact that organizations could easily ignore the

Psychology Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Psychology - Essay Example They encounter serious kinds of attacks frequently while some overcome them with consummate ease, depending upon the nature of stress one has to go through over a period of time. Workplace stress also entails within it issues of anxiousness at work whereby it is regarded as another kind of mental anomaly, which tears down the mind and the body in a number of different ways. Workplace stress leads to different kinds of depressions within oneself on top. The employees start feeling alienated with the tasks and feel their bodies having all forms of aches every now and so often. These people also comprehend the pressures from their job settings which in reality are of a normal nature and have little bearing on them in the real sense. The pressure-exertion effect makes them feel more stressed at the end of the day, which then again is a very perilous thing. Workplace stress can be reduced when employees know that the task they are putting their best energies at, are worth the shot and in the end, the same will help them to grow exponentially. In fact they must be apprised of their hard work and the rewards that they get. This is indeed a nice gesture which means a lot on the part of the hard working and committed employees and workers (Harmon 2003). The hard working employees should balance their work commitments with their physical and mental needs as 100 percent commitment can only be made possible when there is zest and enthusiasm from within and not when a person is made to do one thing or the other by force or against his wishes. The reason why one should believe this approach will work is because in the initial sense, it will build a strong rapport between the firm and its employees and also it will convey a strong message that the organization does not compromise on the needs of the employees who are working for it day in day out just for having that extra bit of work completed by them (Bergman 2003). It also means that the organization is thorough and profes sional in its approach and is not willing to surrender in a rat race when the talk goes out loud of competing within the relevant industry or even with companies just for the sake of nothing but competition. The intensity within organizations is pretty much understandable but the madness should not be substituted on the part of the employees and getting work done out of them so that the figures could be reached and new records could be broken within the shortest possible time is nothing but insanity to say the least. Other useful workplace stress removing remedies are accounted for in the form of exercising regularly, having an intake of healthy diet, taking proper sleep, developing trustworthy social support regimes and more than anything else enjoying quality family time (Linton 2000). The physical and psychological implications thus have direct and serious effects on the way the employees look after their work tasks and thus the bottom line remains all jammed up for a number of r easons – most of which are related with stress in one way or the other. It is true to state that workplace stress affects employees at all levels which could include the physical, emotional, cognitive and behavioral stages. The physical indications entail the speech difficulties and complexities, headaches, ulcers, infertility issues, fatigue and sudden weight loss and

The Undetected Occurrence of PTSD in Soldiers Assignment

The Undetected Occurrence of PTSD in Soldiers - Assignment Example Since soldiers are prone to exposure to various traumatic experiences in their endeavours, these traumatic events may lead to the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers. Thus, this creates a need for the detection and prevention of PTSD, especially among soldiers. There exist a number of strategic interventions with regard to the occurrence of PTSD in the society (Bryant, Creamer and O’Donnell, 2009; Foa, Keane, Friedman and Cohen, 2009; Forbes, Creamer and Bisson, 2010; Sones, Thorp and Raskind, 2011; Ursano, Bell and Eth, 2004). These potential intervention measures can be divided into three. Psychological interventions offer a wide variety of intervention methods for adults with respect to the occurrence of PTSD (Gray, Maguen and Litz, 2004; Hoge, Worthington and Nagurney, 2012; Jakupcak, Roberts, Martell, Mulick, Michael and Reed, 2006; Ruzek, Brymer and Jacobs, 2007; Wood, Murphy and McLay, 2009). Thus, some of the psychological intervention methods with regard to the prevention and treatment of PTSD include psychological first aid (PFA); cognitive therapies and exposure-based therapies among other interventions. Since the occurrence of PTSD can also be attributed to biological pathways, there exist various pharmacological intervention methods (Holbrook, Galarneau and Dye, 2010; Matar, Cohen and Kaplan, 2006; McCleery and Harvey, 2004; Schelling, Roozendaal and De, 2004; Stein, Kerridge and Dimsdale, 2007). This is owed to the fact that such debriefing interventions would be geared towards providing the necessary information concerning the occurrence of PTSD amongst the soldiers (Barboza, 2005). The interventions would also create a platform for the affected soldiers to share the traumatic experiences with other concerned parties (Schnurr and Green, 2004). This would significantly contribute to the reduction of the stigmatization associated with the  occurrence of PTSD among soldiers.This implies that CISD and CISM provide a suitable intervention platform for individuals who may be affected indirectly by traumatic events such as soldiers.  

Environmental Factors Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Environmental Factors Paper - Essay Example Toyota is one of the world’s leading car manufacturing companies which produce and market more than 8 million cars every year. It has a global presence with manufacturing units in more than 27 countries and vehicles sold in more than 170 countries and regions (Toyota, 2010). This paper discusses how various environmental factors affect the marketing decisions of Toyota. Influence of global economic interdependence and the impact of trade practices and agreements It is quite important that Toyota understand the importance of economic interdependence and the impact of trade practices since the current economic situation calls all the countries in the world to be highly interdependent. Toyota can efficiently procure the vehicle parts from specific countries and strategically increase the market share in the countries where they do business. On May 2009, Toyota reported a record loss of $4.2 billion due to the global financial crisis. This shows that the performance of the firm is highly related to global economic conditions. Differences in tariffs, taxes and trade agreements between different countries need to be considered while pricing the products. A high import duty will make a country less attractive to do business with. On the other hand a subsidy on international trade will make a country more attractive to trade. Importance of demographics and physical infrastructure Demographics and physical infrastructure are both macro environmental factors that affect the marketing decision of any firm. The marketing decisions of Toyota are shaped by the demographic factors of human population such as size, location, gender, occupation, race, etc. For example, Toyota cannot supply vehicles to a location where it does not get a cost advantage. So it has to decide on the feasibility of opening a manufacturing unit in that location if the consumer demand is high. The demographic environment can also be classified on the basis of generations. They are Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y. The needs and aspirations of these different generations are different in the form of vehicle design, performance, mileage, pricing etc. Promotional measures should also be made in order to give the right appeal for each of these segments. Physical infrastructure also plays a major role in designing the marketing decisions of Toyota. The vehicles marketed in one country may not be apt for some other countries due to the infrastructure those countries have. In such cases, there needs to be a structural redesign on the vehicle before it can be marketed to such countries. Also the availability of good physical infrastructure will help determine whether it is beneficial to open up manufacturing units for reasons of easy availability of energy, water supply, telecommunication facility, etc. Influence of Cultural Differences Toyota has over the years developed an image of trust and value among the minds of the customers. The marketing strategies will be aime d at making people associate themselves with these qualities in order to affect their purchase decision. People perceive Toyota as a lifestyle brand in some countries whereas in some other countries they consider it as a quality brand. It is the ability of the marketing department that enables Toyota to position the vehicles in the minds of the

The Impact of Global Warming on Agricultural Production Dissertation

The Impact of Global Warming on Agricultural Production - Dissertation Example The significance of this portfolio lies with my genuine interest to identify the relationship between crop farm level agriculture and global warming in China. The underlying inspiration behind this exploration is my experience in Bayer CropScience Ltd in Northeast China. In the changing global context, sustainable agricultural forecasting and irrigational developments require rather collaborated efforts. The production of crops including soybean, wheat, and corn becomes more difficult as the predictability of weather and climate decreases. The aftermath of global warming is very evident in Northeastern China where drought and rain failure is severe. Other challenges those have a direct impact on agriculture are inconsistency in rainfall, increasing temperature, floods, and hurricanes. Global warming inflicts wide range of calamities including rising temperature, climate change, glacier retreat and disappearance, ocean and social system issues, and health problems. Recent studies show that global warming and thereby significant climate changes have dreadfully affected agriculture production across the globe. Many countries have abandoned their agriculture production as they do not get adequate returns to cover capital invested and efforts taken. Improved agriculture production is essential for the human existence; and hence, it is necessary to find out possible ways to mitigate the impact of global warming. China, the world’ most populated country with 7% of the world’s arable land available to feed 22% of the world’s population is more likely to be affected by climate change. Among various crops, soybean is the most vulnerable one to temperature fluctuations. The suitable temperature for soybean is 15-22  °C at emergence, 20-25  °C at flow ering, and 15-22  °C at maturity (Liu et al., 2008). The Context I have long years’ experience in agricultural farming and have worked in Bayer CropScience Ltd in Northeast China. The Bayer CropScience is well known for its leadership in the area of crop protection, non-agricultural pest-control, seeds and plant biotechnology around the world. Bayer vehemently tries to prevent climate changes as part of its sustainability strategy through a series of improvement programs in its own production operations. Therefore, the author is familiar with agriculture production, climate changes, and variation in the volume of farming outcomes over the past several years. The adverse effect of global warming is easily visible in Chinese Soybean industry. China is one of the world’s largest Soybean producers. However, the country has faced a considerable decline in quantity and quality of soybean produced and distributed over last few years. The concept of sustainable agriculture h as become very vital to meet the basic needs of next generations. Sustainable agriculture indicates the practice of agricultural activities based on the principles of ecology. Global warming is defined as â€Å"a continuing increase in Earth’s overall temperature† (Farrar, 2007, p.7). The instrumental temperature record indicates that average global surface temperature has been increased by 0.74 degree Celsius during the 20th century. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that global surface temperature may rise in 21st century from 1.5 to 1.9o C (for lowest emissions scenario) or 3.4 to 6.1o C (for highest emissions scenario). These estimations were made by applying the techniques of sensitivity to greenhouse gas

Reader response Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 3

Reader response - Essay Example For example, it is soiled and ripped. Additionally, it is an â€Å"unclean yellow† (Gilman, 1999). After gazing at the paper for a considerable amount of time, she figures a sub pattern shrouded by the main pattern. However, the pattern is only visible under a certain light. Ultimately, the sub pattern transforms into a woman, desperately trying to entangle herself from the primary pattern which resembles a cage. The wallpaper imagery represents the family and tradition structure in which the narrator finds herself trapped. The cage emanating from the wallpaper has been festooned with heads of women who had tried to escape. All these women were strangled in the process of escaping. Therefore, The Yellow Wallpaper is symbolic of the concept of true womanhood. The cult or concept binds and restricts women to the family and home. These parameters were determined by men. The heads festooned on the cage illustrates the fate that befalls women who try to tamper with the laid down concepts that made a true woman. Any woman who defied was termed as an enemy of civilization and God. The imagery of the wallpaper is significant since it highlights or is used to represent the domestic life that snares a lot of women in

Marketing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 30

Marketing - Essay Example There is a detail description of the objectives that TSL is having. Objectives are goals for the organization. Also, the paper encapsulates the strategies as well as the action plans that must be implemented for effective operation of the company and to beat competition. Last but not the least financial figures have been analyzed in order to understand the company’s performance. The research paper ends up with a dedicated concluding section. Triumph Spares Limited (TSL) was established in the early 1980, as a small family owned business. The company deals with spare parts and the business is run from two sites, one is the factory and the other is the small shop. The factory deals with the spares that are assembled from subcontracted components. The prime stakeholders of the company are Mr. and Mrs. Brian Smith who are the main owners of the company. In the early 1990s, TSL developed mail order business in United States. From the very day of commencement of the business, it was found that TSL was successful in building strong reputation by providing quality spare parts. The license for preparing the spare parts was obtained from Standard Triumph Ltd (Triumphs, 2008). There has been steady growth in the business of TSL from the day of its commencement with turnover of  £ 4000000. The profit margin for TSL is estimated to be 50% for those who buy in bulk from the factory. Triumph Spares Limited provides spare parts to other shops as well as commercial car restoration businesses. On the other hand, the profit margin for TSL is expected to be 100% for those who buy from the shops. The shop provides spare parts to small commercial purchaser and to the general public. The company turnover follows Pareto rule, where 20 % of the turnover comes from the shop and 80 % of the turnover depends on the factories direct sales. Although the main customers for TSL are Classic Components, Spare Parts, Classic Spares, and Spare Shops and Add

Olympic games and Chinese economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Olympic games and Chinese economy - Essay Example Next year, that distinction belongs to Beijing, an ancient city north of China, which is in the forefront of China's surging economy and the center of its political power. In the history of the Olympic movement, China is only the third Asian country - after Tokyo in 1964 and Seoul in 1986 - to host the prestigious Games. The International Olympic Committee chose Beijing over several other aspirants that included Toronto, Paris, Istanbul, and Osaka. The cities of Bangkok, Cairo, Havana, Kuala Lumpur, and Seville also submitted bids to host the Games, but failed to make the shortlist in 2000. Beijing is the fourth city - after Berlin (1936), Mexico City (1968), and Moscow (1980) -- under authoritarian rule to host the games. Its officials welcome the selection as an opportunity to showcase its newfound economic prosperity and to project a more positive image to the rest of the world. While economists believe Beijing is certain to achieve its grand objective of showcasing its vibrant ec onomy and projecting a more positive image in the eyes of the world, they are in disagreement over the Games' immediate impact on its economy. Soon after the announcement was made on the choice of Beijing as the next Olympic site, (Beijing Olympics 2008) the Chinese government announced that it will earmark $20 billion to modernize the city's infrastructure and facilities to improve its woefully polluted environment in time for the Games. That announcement alone is enough assurance that the Olympic Games is bound to spell a dramatic transformation for Beijing, although this figure has already doubled as of the latest count. It is commonly assumed that the scale of an Olympic event and the scale of the preparations for it will create large and lasting economic benefits to the host city. Economic impact studies confirm these expectations by forecasting economic benefits in the billions of dollars. Goldman Sachs Asia has made one of the more aggressive forecasts, predicting that the Games will increase China's GDP growth by 0.3 per cent annually between 2002 and 2008, citing service sectors such as tourism, transportation, information technology services and logistics as the areas for the greatest growth. On the other hand, JP Morgan said the event would increase GDP by no more than 0.05 per cent per year, a figure that hardly makes a difference in China's impressive double digit annual economic GDP growth. "The divergent views are due to different assumptions," said Huang Yiping, an analyst at Salomon Smith Barney. Those who are unmoved by the Games' economic drawing power claim no evidence of positive economic impacts from mega-sporting events even remotely approaching the estimates in economic impact studies. In a study of the impact of Super Bowls on local economies, (Robert A. Baade and Victor Matheson, 1999) found "no measurable impact on spending associated with the event." Their explanation is that capacity constraints in the hotel industry cause room prices to increase with no change in occupancy rates. Higher rates contribute to the crowding out of regular traffic and net spending in areas other than hotel rooms changes little, if at all. The same report claims that longer term sports programs, usually involving stadium subsidies to attract or keep professional teams, have also failed to deliver on projected economic benefits. Even for cities that usually are considered success stories for sports development strategy, such as Baltimore and

Visual Art Analysis Paper Essay Example for Free

Visual Art Analysis Paper Essay Webster’s Dictionary defines Aesthetics as the branch of philosophy dealing with such notions as the beautiful, the ugly, the sublime, the comic, etc. , as applicable to the fine arts, with a view to establishing the meaning and the validity of critical judgments concerning works of art, and the principles underlying or justifying such judgments or the study of the mind and emotions in relation to the sense of beauty. The Dream of La Malinche is aesthetically pleasing despite the fact that I tend to not be attracted to Surrealism. However this artwork told a story that made me curious to find out who La Malinche really was? My first reaction to this artwork is to notice that the room that she is lying in is dark and shabby with exposed brick and a crack in the wall. Was this woman poor or was she labeled as not deserving better? Is this the aesthetically ugly side of life? Dark walls, broken woman. Yet sprawled on her hip is a beautiful church towering over a village in a fertile valley below. Aesthetically beautiful. Prosperity visible in the village and valley, and poverty in the room that La Malinche lies in. What a contrast! Denis Dutton (Aesthetic Universals), a philosopher identified seven universal traits for human See more: how to write an analysis of a research paper aesthetics. He claimed that technical artistic skills are cultivated and recognized. These skills can be admired. Though people admire art they do not expect it to keep food on their table. But it is expected to follow the rules of composition and to be identified as a certain style. Artwork will always be judged, and with few exceptions art will simulate life. Follow our experiences in life yet with a dramatic flair. Based on these traits La Malinche is beautifully orchestrated and very obviously a combination of a folk story and surrealism. Compared to other works by this artist, this particular painting tells a true story, a meaningful story that has played a part in this artist’s life. Visual Arts 3 Expression At the beginning of the 19th century, artists began to express their feelings through their art rather than through the faces painted on a canvas. The real La Malinche was thought to be a hero by some and a traitor by others. Mother of the Mestizo race and harlot to Cortez the explorer. Mexican artwork of this period tended to combine a woman with fertile land to express fertility to the viewer, so I believe this is some of what the artist was also trying to portray. I also love the symbolism between the mountains painted on her hip versus an actual mountain in Mexico named La Malinche. As I studied about Antonio Ruiz, he was referred to several times as a folk art artist besides being a surrealist. I think this art expresses his love for the history of his people and tells their story more adequately than words can express. I dare to call him a surrealist because I do not see where he is avoiding the unpleasantness of the life by wearing rose colored glasses. I feel that he is expressing the truth of the situation and the beauty that can be found amidst ugliness, accusations and tales. However Woman in World Histories Primary Sources claims the Malinche’s body is the ground supporting an unnamed village and church and her image is to invoke female Aztec deities. The metaphor is the Mexican nation is built on the groundwork of Malinche’s actions. So what expressive qualities does this painting have? The mood language is mysterious. It invokes curiosity. The dynamic state is intense and provoking. The Ideal language would be compassion, courage and fearlessness. Sensation This painting provokes a strong emotion in me. I am not sure that I would label it anger, but I feel a sense of injustice rise up inside me. I understand what the artist was trying to portray in this painting but I also know how I interpret this painting. In my interpretation I want to fight for the dignity of this woman who is treated with obvious disrespect based on the condition of Visual Arts 4 the room in which she lies while a village in a valley appears prosperous. And yet I feel an animosity toward the people who do not recognize the contribution that she made to their society or the number of lives that were probably spared. I feel the history of this story and the artist’s emotions. I feel that the woman in the bed carries a huge load on her shoulders. You can almost feel her despair and have to wonder what heart ache she carries within. Does this prosperous village in the valley sit ignorant of the sacrifices of this fearless woman? This woman instills hope and compassion and a sense of empowerment. It’s like being on an emotional rollercoaster yet the lines of this painting is also like a rollercoaster. The round mountain peaks, the curving roads and the rolling sheets over the woman. The curvy scrolls of the wrought iron bed all encompass this feeling of being on a rollercoaster. Formal Design This painting has been labeled as Surrealism. Surrealism was supposedly born from the Dada Movement. This â€Å"Dada Movement† was a banding together of artists who sought refuge from World War I in Europe. As they banded together they became like our early day protestors. Their art, poetry and music reflected their anti-war cries. After the war people wanted to get away from the intensity of darkness that so many paintings depicted and they wanted something to help them escape the everyday reality. So Surrealism became a way for them to combine dreams and fantasy with some reality. The Principles for all design are Unity, Balance, Dominance, Repetition, Rhythm, Contrast and Theme. There is a unity between the woman living in poverty and the prosperous village. Can there be prosperity without poverty? Or can there be poverty without prosperity? If the prosperous mountain were removed all this art would speak about is poverty. La Malinche would appear as a poor woman on a bed. Would you be curious about her Visual Arts 5 circumstances or would you feel compelled to look away? If La Malinche was removed from the painting you would just have a prosperous village living in a valley. A beautiful fairytale painting. Because the elements of this painting need each other and have unity, this painting has balance. The mountain on La Malinche’s hip gives this painting symmetry. It becomes almost the fulcrum of the painting. Everything balances around the central part of this painting. The mountain, the prosperity takes a dominant position in this painting which could suggest her success in rising above adversity. The rhythm in this painting would be the flow of the village across the sheets, and the flow of the sheets across the woman. There is this continuous theme flowing out from the village. The poverty, the dark room and the woman contrast with the light of the village and it’s prosperity. Each of these principals come together to form the theme of poverty and prosperity. Lightness and Dark. Realism and Surrealism. Technical Properties The Dream of La Malinche is painted on canvas with oils. If skill is truly based on the artists portrayal of his picture, than Ruiz has truly surpassed all other artists in portraying the history and story of this heroic figure. He has an incredible sense of color. And this painting reflects his own personal view on this historical figure. The lightening bolt (or crack in the wall as I call it) has depth to it. This painting does not have the usual bulkiness that you so often see in oil paintings. As an artist Antonio Ruiz is known for his draftsmanship skills. He is considered a great painter of small works and respected for his aesthetic quality. Visual Arts 6 References Dutton, D. , Aesthetic Universals Merriam-Webster Dictionary, Definition of Aesthetics

Sterilization And Aseptic Technique Biology Essay

Sterilization And Aseptic Technique Biology Essay This experiment was done to learn proper way of using aseptic technique and sterilization by isolating pure culture of bacterial. Afterwards, the bacterial cells in a sample and their optical density were determined. First of all, various sterilization methods were introduced. Sterilization is important in a sense that it ensures there is absolutely no contamination in the glassware or apparatus used in the lab. Different sterilization methods are used for different materials. One of them is autoclaving. Autoclaving machine uses high-pressure steam to sterilize and therefore, heat resistant plastics, glass or solutions can be sterilized by autoclaving. As the temperature of the steam is above 100 oC, the organisms cannot survive. Second sterilization method is radiation. As heat sensitive plastics does not have resistance to heat, autoclaving cannot be used and these are often sterilized by using radiation such as UV, gamma-ray or X-ray. The last method is filter sterilization. Some solutions are heat labile, and to sterilize these kind of solutions, filter sterilization can be used. This technique uses the fact that microorganism is around 5micrometer by 1micrometer, and if the filter has a smal ler diameter, microorganisms cannot pass through the filter.(1) In part B, aseptic technique is learned. This technique prevents any kind of contamination while handling the glassware or transferring. To be more specific, it prevents any contaminant to be introduced in the area of interest. The first step of this technique involves wiping the lab bench with 70% ethanol, which would kill most microorganisms. Then, Bunsen burner is turned on, and the movement of the air goes upwards. Therefore, it minimizes the chance of microorganisms landing on the media of interest. In addition, briefly heating glass tube mouths and minimizing the time of opening lids minimizes contamination.(1) Using aseptic technique, streaking technique was used to isolate single colonies. To do this, a pure culture of the target microorganism is taken. Then, with an inocular loop, which is flamed with Bunsen burner until red hot, it cooled down. Afterwards, take a bit of pure culture with the loop and streak lines in the medium. The streaking lines should not cross each other to avoid too much diluting. After streaking, colonies are grown. To count the number of cells, viable cell count method is used. Viable count is only useable with singles colonies and not bacterial lawns. Therefore, in order for cell to have single colonies, appropriate dilution of the bacteria is necessary. The dilution helps for spreading of the cells on the agar. For this, serial dilution, which was introduced last project can be useful. Then, the number of viable cells can be obtained by counting the number of colonies that have developed multiplied by the respective dilution factor. (2) Material and Methods: All procedures are performed according to the BIOL 368 lab manual (Concordia Biology Department 2013) except for the following modifications: for the contamination part, we used shoe, finger, E. coli, and E. coli with 70% ethanol. Results: Colony isolation by streaking First of all, the color of the bacteria in all the plates are thick beige colored. In streak 1, extremely small and many colonies were observed. The size of the colonies were very small, they were circular, opaque and smooth. There are 123 colonies. Streak 2 shows chain of bacterial formation, but the number of the colonies is decreased from streak 1. The number of colonies were 60. They were larger than the colonies in streak 1, opaque, circular and smooth as well. In streak 3, single colonies are observed. None of them was huge, but they were larger than the colonies from streak 2. They were opaque, circular and smooth as well. About 9 colonies were observed. In the 4th streak, no single colony was observed. As a result, single colonies of a pure E. coli strain was successfully isolated. Viable count Table 1. Raw data of viable count of my group. Dilution 10-4 10-5 10-6 Number of colony Too many Too many 252 Viable count (cfu/ml) 2.52 x 109 Sample calculation: Viable count at 10-6 dilution: Since the plate, -6, has 252 colonies which is in the range of 100-300, I picked the plate to calculate cfu/ml. 252 x 10/10-6 =2.52 x 102 x 107 =2.52 x 109 cfu/ml Table 2. Raw data for viable count for all section Dilutions Colony count Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 8 Group 9 Group 10 Section 1 10-4 lawn lawn lawn lawn lawn lawn lawn à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ lawn lawn 10-5 360 lawn 1848 lawn 1028 2168 696 à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ 3040 1646 10-6 78 287 441 270 234 347 363 à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€š ¬ 300 306 Section 2 10-4 920 >300 Lawn Lawn Lawn >300 >300 Lawn Lawn Lawn 10-5 249 >300 590 >300 Lawn >300 >300 406 >300 189 10-6 23 231 189 269 384 222 265 154 180 108 Section 3 10-4 too many >1000 too many too many too many too many too many too many too many too many 10-5 too many >1000 too many too many too many too many too many too many 544 too many 10-6 194 420 258 252 295 217 240 197 79 224 Table 3. Viable count for all section data (for 10-6 dilution) Section Group Number of colonies Cfu/ml 01 1 78 7.8.E+08 2 287 2.87.E+09 3 441 4.41 E+09 4 270 2.70 E+09 5 234 2.34.E+09 6 347 3.47E+09 7 363 3.63E+09 8 9 300 3.00E+09 10 306 3.06E+09 Max 441 4.41E+09 Min 78 7.8 E+08 Average 291.8 2.92 E+09 Standard Dev. 94.40 2.67E+08 02 1 23 2.3.E+08 2 231 2.31.E+09 3 189 1.89.E+09 4 269 2.69.E+09 5 384 3.84.E+09 6 222 2.22.E+09 7 265 2.65.E+09 8 154 1.54.E+09 9 180 1.80.E+09 10 108 1.08.E+09 Max 384 3.84.E+09 Min 23 2.3.E+08 Average 202.5 2.02.E+09 Standard dev. 93.09 9.31E+08 03 1 194 1.94.E+09 2 420 4.20.E+09 3 258 2.58.E+09 4 252 2.52.E+09 5 295 2.95.E+09 6 217 2.17.E+09 7 240 2.40.E+09 8 197 1.97.E+09 9 79 7.9.E+08 10 224 2.24.E+09 Max 420 4.20.E+09 Min 79 7.9.E+08 Average 237.6 2.38.E+09 Standard Dev. 81.55 8.16.E+08 Max 441 4.41.E+09 Min 23 2.3.E+08 Average 242.3 2.42.E+09 Standard Deviation 96.75 1.15E+09 Sample calculation for STD DEV. (section 1):= 94.40 Bacterial cell count by optical density Table 4. Cell density for My Group: OD600 of diluted cultures (Au) E. Coli Count of diluted Culture (cells/ml) Original Culture (cells/ml) Me 0.427 2.18108 2.18109 Partner 0.436 2.14108 2.14109 E. Coli Count of diluted Culture: 0.202 x (5x 108) = 1.01108 Original Culture: 1.01108 x 10 = 1.01109 Table 5. Raw OD600 values for all sections (unit: Au) Group Section 1 (1) Section 1 (2) Section 2 (1) Section 2(2) Section 3(1) Section 3 (2) 1 0.389 0.383 0.359 0.371 0.358 0.365 2 0.368 0.369 0.247 0.447 0.345 0.408 3 0.364 0.343 0.344 0.360 0.323 0.335 4 0.374 0.374 0.390 0.338 0.427 0.436 5 0.415 0.430 0.386 0.368 0.320 0.247 6 0.359 0.357 0.302 0.350 0.379 0.352 7 0.347 0.372 0.354 0.369 0.391 0.364 8 0.362 0.361 0.358 0.328 9 0.370 0.35 1.018 0.350 0.341 10 0.737 0.367 0.368 0.353 0.413 0.322 (>1.96 therefore outlier) Table 6. Diluted Cell Density for all sections (unit: cells/ml) Group Section 1 (1) Section 1 (2) Section 2 (1) Section 2(2) Section 3(1) Section 3 (2) 1 1.95E+08 1.92E+08 1.80E+08 1.51E+08 1.79E+08 1.90E+08 2 1.84E+08 1.85E+08 1.86E+08 1.75E+08 1.83E+08 1.76E+08 3 1.82E+08 1.72E+08 1.24E+08 1.77E+08 1.73E+08 1.96E+08 4 1.87E+08 1.87E+08 2.24E+08 1.85E+08 2.04E+08 1.82E+08 5 2.08E+08 2.15E+08 1.72E+08 1.81E+08 1.62E+08 1.79E+08 6 1.80E+08 1.79E+08 1.80E+08 1.81E+08 1.68E+08 1.64E+08 7 1.74E+08 1.86E+08 1.95E+08 1.75E+08 2.14E+08 1.75E+08 8 1.69E+08 5.09E+08 2.18E+08 1.71E+08 9 1.85E+08 1.93E+08 1.84E+08 1.60E+08 2.07E+08 10 1.87E+08 1.84E+08 1.84E+08 1.77E+08 1.24E+08 1.61E+08 Average 1.87E+08 1.95E+08 1.79E+08 Min 1.72E+08 1.24E+08 1.24E+08 Max 2.15E+08 5.09E+08 2.18E+08 Standard Deviation 1.05E+07 7.43E+07 2.13E+07 Sample calculation: Section 1 group1 student 1: Cell Density = 0.389 x (5x 10^8) = 1.95 x107 Section 1 Average: Average = ((1.95+1.84+1.82+1.87+2.08+1.80+1.74+1.85+1.87+1.92+1.85+1.72+1.87+2.15+1.79+1.86+1.84) x 108)/ 17 = 1.87 x108 Table 7. Diluted Cell Density for all sections, class analysis Class (cells/ml) Average 1.87E+08 Minimum 1.24E+08 Maximum 5.09E+08 Standard Deviation 4.66E+07 Part III. The ubiquity of microorganisms Table 8. The ubiquity of microorganisms Place Observation on TSA plate Observation on Malt Shoe Irregular orange, red, beige opaque Some are large, some are small Some are smooth some are cracked 10colonies None Dirty finger White and yellow all small colonies (4) opaque None E.coli Few circular, smooth, flat, beige colonies (lawn) None E.coli with 70% ethanol None None Discussion: The objective of the experiment is to learn aseptic technique, sterilization, and streaking. Part A involved isolating single colonies by streaking, part B involved viable cell count, part C involved bacterial cell count by optical density and lastly part D involved ubiquity of microorganisms. In part A, a pure E. Coli sample was used to form single colonies by streaking. Four streaks were done in different parts of the plate. As described in the results, 1st streak results in forming smallest and very crowded colonies (123 colonies). The space between the colonies were either very small or even adjacent to each other. The 2nd streak forms a larger and less crowded or less population of colonies (60 colonies). Colonies were found to be further apart from streak 1, but they were adjacent to other colonies, so single colonies were not observed. In the 3rd streak finally, isolated single colonies were observed. This is due to the dilution. As in the streak 1, we have least diluted E. Coli pure sample. Therefore, streak 1 has the biggest cell density, where more colonies would grow. In the streak 2, we streak through the streak 1 once, and so, it is diluted. Then, in the third streak as well, it is even more diluted. This is why we have lesser and lesser colonies in the 2nd an d 3rd colonies. Colonies all seem to have same opaque shape with beige color, but they differ in sizes. 1st streak ones have the smallest and 3rd streak ones have the largest. This is due to the fact that as the number of the colonies are bigger and crowded, there are less space to grow, so it tends to be smaller where as in 3rd streak, isolated colonies have more space where they can grow bigger. In part B, viable count was used to estimate the number of bacterial cells in the sample. Firstly, we prepared 4-fold, 5-fold and 6-fold diluted solutions of E. Coli and they were incubated at 37 degrees Celsius. As we can see in the table 2, 4-fold dilution and 5-folded dilution are too concentrated that bacterial lawn is observed where we cannot apply viable count: they have small viable count to work with and would result in high uncertainty (1). 6-folded dilution appears to be fine to apply viable count and therefore, we used 6-folded dilution to analyze. Looking at the all section data, most of them have the viable counts ranged between 30 and 300. In addition, the average viable count of our section is very close to the class average: 2.38 x 109 to 2.42 x 109 cfu/ml. Also, my group value is very close to the class average as well: 2.52 x 109 cfu/ml. This means that our result is pretty accurate compared to the class result. Speaking of the minimum and the maximum value, there i s a high chance that the errors come from these as these values are furthest from the average. Section 1 has the maximum value which is 4.41 x 109 cfu/ml and section 2 has the minimum value which is 2.3 x 108 cfu/ml. The minimum value seem to be okay but maximum value seem to lie over 300 colonies, and therefore, the biggest error comes from that value. However, none of these biggest error comes from our section, and therefore, we can say that our section value has the least error. Part C was done to take cell density by optical density. CAG12033 was taken and was diluted with LB broth. When analyzing, the group 9 student2s value was 1.018, which appeared to be as an outlier. Grubbs test was done, and it was eventually an outlier, so we excluded it from further analysis. Speaking of the cell density, as there are more and more of cell in the solution, the density increases. As well, the result shows that as absorbance increases, the cell density increases. Comparing the class average to our section average, it is fairly close: 1.79x 108 and 1.87 x 108cells/ml. However, we have the class minimum value which is 1.24 x 108 cells/ml so we have one of the largest errors. But this is not very far from the average value, which is 1.87 x 108 cells/ml it is not the biggest error. The class maximum value however is very far from the class average value: 5.09108 cells/ml. This value is in the section 2 data. Section 1 has the best result over the class with closest averag e value to the class average having no minimum nor maximum values; 1.87 x 108cells/ml which is the same as class average. Comparing my cell density value to the section value, I had 2.18x109cells/ml, whereas the class average was 1.87 x 108 cells/ml. I have a fairly close value and it can be considered that CAG12033 is diluted fairly correctly. Now comparing viable count method to the cell density measured by spectrophotometer, they can be considered the same. The class average value for the cell density was1.87 x 108 cells/ml and the class average result for the viable count method was 2.42 x 109 cfu/ml. They can be considered the same with the following reasons. First of all, for the optical density method, there is an assumption that there are 5 x 108 cells/ml when the absorbance is 1 Au. This is an assumption and is not an accurate value. Secondly, there are experimental errors such as when diluting, the dilution was not done perfectly, where the error would increase as serial dilution was done in viable count part. As a result, factor of 10 difference is quiet big, but within these assumptions and errors, they can be considered as similar. Part D was done to see what contamination looks like and how it is. TSA and malt medium were used to contaminate. Different samples were taken with a sterilized rod and were streaked different parts of the plates on both TSA and malt. They were then incubated at 37 degrees Celsius if it is from internal body or incubated at 30 degrees otherwise. TSA is usually considered the best under neutral to slightly basic conditions and required high N for bacteria to grow. On the other hand, malt is best under acidic condition and high in C and N. Malt is best for fungi. First of all, the shoe was rubbed, and streaked on both TSA and Malt plates. A week later, all different kinds of bacteria were grown. Various colored and various sizes were observed: orange, red and beige. Some were really huge and flat, some were small, opaque and smooth. 10 colonies were observed. On malt, nothing grew. Due to the fact that nothing grew on malt, the colonies have to be bacteria. Another possibilities is tha t malt plate was put in the 37 degrees Celsius which is inappropriate. In quarter of the plate, dirty finger was used to contaminate. 4 colonies of white and yellow were observed. They were all opaque. Nothing grew on malt. In another part of the plate, we put E. Coli sample. Circular, smooth, flat colonies were observed. There were a lot of colonies (bacterial lawn) grown. Again nothing grew on malt. Lastly, we put E. coli with 70% ethanol. Absolutely nothing grew on both malt and TSA. Overall, nothing grew on malt. It is maybe because there was no fungi, or the plates were incubated in the wrong temperature (37 degrees Celsius instead of 30 degrees Celsius). Also, we can say that 70% ethanol kills most of the bacteria or at least enough to prevent them to grow.

Manufacturing Processes of Bleach

Manufacturing Processes of Bleach Introduction Household Bleach is one of the most helpful tools in most American households. There are two main classes of household bleach: chlorine bleaches and non-chlorine bleaches. All of these bleaches are in a class of chemicals known as oxidative agents, meaning that they cause a chemical reaction called oxidation when they come into contact with certain stains, certain germs or other organisms, and sometimes clothing dyes. Bleach is a very useful chemical, both around the house and for large scale use. You can use bleach to remove stains on clothing or to whiten your laundry. Its used to disinfect surfaces, too, especially in the kitchen and bathroom. You may have tried bleach to remove mold and mildew. Hospital personnel use bleach as a disinfectant, hotels use bleach to clean and disinfect bed linens and surfaces, and restaurants disinfect food preparation surfaces with chlorine bleach. People use chlorine in swimming pools to keep the water clean and raise the pH, and in much smaller concentrations to help keep municipal water supplies free of harmful organisms. Companies sometimes add chlorine bleach to industrial wastewater to reduce odor, and chlorine is used by the glass, chemical, pharmaceutical, textile, agriculture, paint and paper industries. With its many uses, bleach its a very familiar product to most people. While the word bleach entered the English language around the year 1050, bleach containing sodium hypochlorite was first manufactured in the U.S. in 1913, for use as an institutional disinfectant and a water treatment. Before that, chemicals such as borax, ammonia and lye were the most common bleaches in the U.S., and bleaches made using chlorine were generally too expensive to manufacture until the 20th century. Clorox Chemical, later called the Clorox Company, first gave samples of bleach to consumers for household use in 1922 [source: American Chemistry Council]. Since chlorine bleach was faster and more effective than the bleaches people had been using, it quickly became the most popular household bleach. Today, when we say, bleach, we usually mean chlorine bleach. So what exactly is chlorine bleach, and how does it work? Humans have been whitening fabrics for centuries; ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans bleached materials. As early as 300 B.C., soda ash, prepared from burned seaweed, was used to clean and whiten cloth. During the Middle Ages, the Dutch perfected the bleaching of fabrics in a process called crofting, whereby fabrics were spread out in large fields for maximum sunlight exposure. Textile mills as far away as Scotland shipped their material to the Netherlands for this bleaching. The practice quickly spread throughout Europe, and bleaching fields were documented in Great Britain as early as 1322. In 1728 a bleaching company using Dutch methods went into business in Galloway, Scotland. In this process, the fabrics were soaked in a lye solution for several days, then bucked, or washed clean. The fabrics were then spread out on the grass for weeks at a time. This process was repeated five or six times until the desired whiteness was achieved. Next, the fabric was treated with sour milk or buttermilk, and again bucked and crofted. This method was lengthy and tedious, and it monopolized large tracts of land that could have been used for farming. Late in the 18th century, scientists discovered a chemical that had the same effect as crofting, but yielded much quicker results. In 1774, Swedish chemist Karl Wilhelm Scheele discovered the chemical element chlorine, a highly irritating, green-yellowish gaseous halogen. In 1785, the French scientist Claude Berthollet found that chlorine was an excellent whitening agent in fabrics. Some mill operators attempted to expose their fabrics to chlorine gas, but the process was so cumbersome and the fumes so strong that these attempts were soon abandoned. Near Paris, in the town of Javel, Berthollet began a small facility for the manufacture of a new product called Eau de Javelle. The bleaching powder consisted of potash (soda ash) which had absorbed chlorine gas. In 1799, another bleaching powder was invented by Scottish chemist Charles Tennant. In the early years of the Industrial Revolution, his patented lime powder was widely used to whiten a variety of fabrics and paper products. To make the bleaching powder, slaked lime (lime treated with water) was spread thinly over the concrete or lead floor of a large room. Chlorine gas was pumped into the room to be absorbed by the lime. Though an effective whitener, the powder was chemically unstable. It was The raw materials for making household bleach are chlorine, caustic soda, and water. The chlorine and caustic soda are produced by putting direct current electricity through a sodium chloride salt solution in a process called electrolysis. commonly used until around World War I, when liquid chlorine and sodium hypochlorite solutions-the forerunners of modern household bleach-were introduced. About this time, researchers found that injecting salt water with electrical current broke down the salt (sodium chloride) molecules and produced a compound called sodium hypochlorite. This discovery enabled the mass production of sodium hypochlorite, or chlorine, bleach. Types of Bleach Today, bleach is found in nearly every household. It whitens fabrics and removes stains by a chemical reaction that breaks down the undesired color into smaller particles that can be easily removed by washing. The two types of household bleach are chlorine bleach and peroxide bleach. Peroxide bleach was introduced in the 1950s. Though it helps to remove stains, especially in higher wash temperatures, it will not bleach most colored materials and does not weaken fabrics, as does sodium hypochlorite bleach. Peroxide bleach does not disinfect and is commonly added to laundry detergents which are advertised as color-safe. It also has a longer shelf life than chlorine bleach. Peroxide bleach is more commonly used in Europe, where washing machines are manufactured with inner heating coils that can raise the water temperature to the boiling point. The more common form of household bleach in the U.S. is chlorine bleach. It is most effective in removing stains and disinfecting fabrics. Chlorine bleach is cheap to manufacture and effective in both warm and hot wash temperatures. However, it has strong chemical properties which can weaken textile fibers. The disinfecting properties of chlorine bleach can also be useful outside the laundry. Chlorine bleach disinfects drinking water where groundwater contamination has occurred, as it is a powerful germicide. It was first used to sanitize drinking water in New York Citys Croton Reservoir in 1895, and is approved by the government for sanitizing equipment in the food industry. In recent years, bleach has been promoted by community health activists as a low-cost method of disinfecting the needles of intravenous drug users. Raw Materials The raw materials for making household bleach are chlorine, caustic soda, and water. The chlorine and caustic soda are produced by putting direct current electricity through a sodium chloride salt solution in a process called electrolysis. Sodium chloride, common table salt, comes from either mines or underground wells. The salt is dissolved in hot water to form a salt solution, which is then treated for impurities before it is reacted in the electrolytic cell. The Manufacturing Process Preparing the components 1 Caustic soda is usually produced and shipped as a concentrated 50% solution. At its destination, this concentrated solution is diluted with water to form a new 25% solution. 2 Heat is created when the water dilutes the strong caustic soda solution. The diluted caustic soda is cooled before it is reacted. The chemical reaction 3 Chlorine and the caustic soda solution are reacted to form sodium hypochlorite bleach. This reaction can take place in a batch of about 14,000 gallons or in a continuous reactor. To create sodium hypochlorite, liquid or gaseous chlorine is circulated through the caustic soda solution. The reaction of chlorine and caustic soda is essentially instantaneous. Cooling and purifying 4 The bleach solution is then cooled to help prevent decomposition. 5 Often this cooled bleach is settled or filtered to remove impurities that can discolor the bleach or catalyze its decomposition. Shipping 6 The finished sodium hypochlorite bleach is shipped to a bottling plant or bottled on-site. Household-strength bleach is typically 5.25% sodium hypochlorite in an aqueous solution. Quality Control In the bleach manufacturing facility, the final sodium hypochlorite solution is put through a series of filters to extract any left-over impurities. It is also tested to make certain that it contains exactly 5.25% sodium hypochlorite. Safety is a primary concern at manufacturing plants because of the presence of volatile chlorine gas. When the chlorine is manufactured outside the reactor facility, it travels in liquid form in specially designed railroad tank cars with double walls that will not rupture in the event of a derailment. On arrival at the plant, the liquid chlorine is pumped from the tank cars into holding vat.. As a safety measure, the tank cars have shutoff valves that work in conjunction with a chlorine detection system. In the event of a chlorine leak, the detection system triggers a device on the tank that automatically stops the transmission of the liquid in 30 seconds. Inside the facility, chlorine vats are housed in an enclosed area called a car barn. This enclosed room is equipped with air scrubbers to eliminate any escaped chlorine gas, which is harmful to humans and the environment. The vacuum-like scrubber inhales any chlorine gas from the enclosed area and injects it with caustic soda. This turns it into bleach, which is incorporated into the manufacturing process. Despite these precautions, safety and fire drills are scheduled regularly for plant personnel. Special Considerations in Packaging Household sodium hypochlorite bleach was introduced to Americans in 1909 and sold in steel containers, then in glass bottles. In the early 1960s, the introduction of the plastic jug brought a cheaper, lighter, and nonbreakable packaging alternative. It reduced transportation costs and protected the safety of workers involved in its shipping and handling. Additionally, the thick plastic did not permit ultraviolet light to reach the bleach, which improved its chemical stability and effectiveness. In recent years, how-ever, plastic containers have become an environmental concern because of the time it takes the material to decompose in a landfill. Many companies that depend on plastic packaging, including bleach manufacturers, have begun to reduce the amount of plastic in their packaging or to use recycled plastics. In the early 1990s, Clorox introduced post-consumer resins (PCR) in its packaging. The newer bottles are a blend of virgin high-density polyethylene (HDPE) and 25% recycled plastic, primarily from clear milk jug-type bottles. Consumer Safety The bleach manufacturing industry came under fire during the 1970s when the public became concerned about the effects of household chemicals on personal health. Dioxin, a carcinogenic byproduct of chemical manufacturing, is often found in industrial products used to bleach paper and wood. In its final bottled form, common sodium hypochlorite bleach does not contain dioxins because chlorine must be in a gaseous state for dioxins to exist. However, chlorine gas can form when bleach comes into contact with acid, an ingredient in some toilet-bowl cleaners, and the labels on household bleach contain specific warnings against such combination. In addition to the danger of dioxins, consumers have also been concerned about the toxicity of chlorine in sodium hypochlorite bleach. However, the laundry process deactivates the potentially toxic chlorine and causes the formation of salt water. After the rinse water enters the water system through the household drain, municipal water filtration plants remove the remaining traces of chlorine.